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This 3 page paper examines articles by Kenneth Hippa and Michael Levin and argues that affirmative action is justified and racial profiling is not. Bibliography lists 2 sources.
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3 pages (~225 words per page)
File: KV32_HV678120.rtf
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they can or cannot be morally justified. Discussion We begin with Himma. He argues in favor of affirmative action, but not on the basis that it is necessary to bolster
minorities and womens self-esteem, but on that basis that "institutional discrimination puts women and blacks at an unfair competitive disadvantage by causing academic disidentification" (Himma, 2001, p. 277). Self-esteem is
not a reliable measure here, he argues, since it cannot be shown that self-esteem is directly connected to academic achievement; in fact, self-esteem is only a reasonable measurement if the
person fails at something which holds importance for them (Himma, 2001). That is, a person may take a course in higher mathematics for fun, and fail at it, but suffer
no loss of self-esteem because the course is not important to them or to their self-concept (Himma, 2001). However, if they fail at a core course in their major, they
may suffer a blow to their self-worth (Himma, 2001). But overall, he argues, though institutional discrimination does not appear to have a significant, measurable impact on academic achievement by lowering
self-esteem, it does have a negative impact in another way: it causes what is called "academic disidentification" (Himma, 2001, p. 283). This is a rather difficult concept to explain.
In essence, what Himma is saying is that "pervasive stereotypes cause even the most talented women and blacks to remove the domain [of academic pursuits] as a self-identity, on a
basis of self-evaluation" (Himma, 2001, p. 283). That is, they stop identifying themselves closely with their studies "because of the fear that academic failure confirms stereotypes about intellectual ability" (Himma,
2001, p. 238). That is, women and blacks fear that if they fail academically, it will be seen by white male students not merely as an individual failure, but as
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